​[By] the introduction into the school of various forms of active occupation … the entire spirit of the school is renewed. 
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It has a chance to affiliate itself with life, to become the child’s habitat, where he learns through directed learning, instead of being only a place to learn lessons having an abstract and remote reference to some possible living to be done in the future. It gets a chance to be a miniature community, and embryonic society. To do this means to make each one of our schools an embryonic community life, active with the types of occupation that reflect the life of larger society (Kalantzis, and Cope, n.d.-a).
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The role of a Montessori teacher is that of an observer whose ultimate goal is to intervene less and less as the child develops. The teacher’s first objective is to prepare and organize the learning environment to meet the needs and interests of the children as well as promote independence. The focus is on the children, not on teachers teaching. Through careful observation and planning, Montessori teachers remain constantly alert to the direction each child is heading and actively works to help them succeed (North Star Montessori Elementary School, n.d.)
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this institution should be a perpetual creation by the cooperative enthusi-asm of teachers and students growing with the growth of their soul; a world in itself, self-sustaining, independent, rich with ever-renewing life, radiating life across space and time, attracting and maintaining round it a planetary system of dependent bodies.
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Career Foundations course empowered students to take control of the course itself and thus, their own goals, first by setting their own standards in the four key areas of attendance, punctuality, focused teamwork, and homework completion, and sharing how they would help each other meet their goals when they ran into problems.
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In sum, there are many methodological challenges to carrying out good quality educational research, including good quality research on the Montessori method. Arguably the most obvious challenge to emerge from the literature reviewed here is the practical difficulty of randomly allocating pupils to Montessori and non-Montessori schools in order to compare outcomes. The majority of studies have relied instead on trying to match pupils and teachers in Montessori and non-Montessori schools on a number of different variables, with the concomitant danger that unidentified factors have contributed to any difference in outcomes. Even if randomisation is achievable, studies need to be conducted on a large enough scale to not only allow generalisations to be made beyond the particular schools studied, but to also allow investigation of which children the Montessori method suits best. On a more optimistic note, recent experimental studies—whereby features of existing Montessori classrooms are manipulated in some way, or features of the Montessori method are added to non-Montessori classrooms—hold promise for investigating the effectiveness of particular elements of the Montessori method.

​Some critics believed and still believe that under Dewey’s educational system students would fail to acquire basic academic skills and knowledge. Others were fearful that classroom order and the teacher’s authority would disappear. They probably constituted a minority at the time, but recent events seem to demonstrate that their concerns cannot be ignored. If society rejects or ignores the existence of an objective moral order and throws into the dustbin of history the concept of natural law, relativism takes its place and becomes the ethical norm of conduct in accordance with man’s own personal experience and/or observations. If to these two factors we add the lack of respect and contempt for authority, we have created the formula for chaos and eventually a totalitarianism of the worst kind. Society cannot survive without order and respect for legitimate authority both at the government level and primarily at the family level where children are expected to be taught the difference between right and wrong.

​Concrete language is remembered better than abstract language in a wide variety of tasks” (Paivio et al., 1994, p. 1196). The concreteness effect is most often interpreted within Paivio’s (1971) dual-coding theory, according to which imaginal and verbal processing independently contribute to memory for concrete words, whereas only verbal processing is usually possible for abstract material (Schmidt, 2008). ​

Baddeley described three mechanisms within the WM framework that relate to these WM limitations: a central executive (CE) that coordinates the WM processes and two subsystems, a visual/spatial processor, and a phonological loop or auditory processor (Sweller, 2005).The CE has four main tasks: a) focus attention; b) divide attention between more than one task as necessary, c) switch attention back and forth, and d) communicate with long term memory (Baddeley, 2012).The visual/spatial sketchpad stores visual and spatial information and is also responsible for creating and interpreting mental images (Swanson & Saez, 2005).The phonological loop acts as a temporary storage facility for verbal information, including subvocal speech and sounds. These three WM mechanisms interact with incoming information” (Greer, Crutchfield, and Woods, 2013). ​

The majority of these online courses rely on audiovisual instruction supplemented by regular individual or collaborative homework assignments. The format of audiovisual instruction widely varies across courses, but one popular template is a series of roughly 12-min lecture videos showing lecture slides, overlaid with annotation and the instructor’s voice. (Kizilcec, Bailenson, and Gomez, 2015).

Self-assessment is the process of ongoing reflection, self-judgment, and self-monitoring to summarize one’s strengths and clarify areas for improvement. This includes learning from one’s experiences; judging one’s personal, educational, and professional performance; examining personal characteristics based on evidence, external standards, and explicit criteria for the purpose of future quality and performance improvements. Research has shown that self-assessment can improve learner's communication skills, and can result in behavior change (Nonyel, 2015).

Consequential validity is the argument that the worth of a test is determined by its consequences for students and others. For example, a valid assessment is one that contributes to student learning—if the assessment has a negative effect on student learning, the test is invalid (Moss, 1998)” (Ross, 2006, p. 4).

Some data suggest that students prefer self-assessment to assessment by the teacher alone. The reasons given by grade 5-11 students why they preferred self-assessment suggest additional benefits of self-assessment: 1) students said that with self-assessment they had a better understanding of what they were supposed to do because they were involved in setting the criteria for the assessment; 2) students argued the self-assessment was fairer because it enabled them to include important performance dimensions, such as effort, that would not usually be included in their grade; 3) self-assessment enabled them to communicate information about their performance (e.g., their goals and reasoning) that was not otherwise available to their teacher; 4) self-assessment
gave them information they could use to improve their work (J. Ross et al., 1998). These changes in perception in the value of assessment through greater involvement in the process might reduce the trend reported by Paris, Lawton, Turner and Roth (1991) in which students become increasingly cynical about the validity and value of assessment as they move through the school system. (Ross, 2006, p. 7)

Brainscape is a synchronous web and mobile flashcard program designed to improve the retention of declarative knowledge. It is different from other spaced-repetition flashcard programs in that its pattern for re-assessment is based not on a random algorithm nor on the user’s past history of correctness, but rather on the user’s own judgment of confidence in each piece of information – a process that Brainscape calls ConfidenceBased Repetition (CBR). Cohen (n.d.)